HIPPO

The world is losing species and biodiversity at an unprecedented rate and its cause go deep ranging from a complex combination of social, economic, political and biological factors. There is a biodiversity crisis that has done irreparable harm to the countless species and the assaults come from so many directions that nature can’t adjust. 

 E.O Wilson a revolutionary biologist has coined the acronym HIPPO to describe these multiple assaults: habitat destruction, invasive species, pollution, population increase and over-grazing. 

HABITAT DESTRUCTION

The word ‘Habitat’ means living space. This refers to the process which habitat is unable to support the species present, resulting in the species being displaced or destroyed and a reduced biodiversity. Clearing habitats for agriculture is the primary reason of habitat destruction. Mining, logging, trawling and urban sprawl as also some other reason. . About 89% of bird species, 83% of mammals and 91% of plant species have become extinct due to habitat destruction. As the climate changes, the current habitats of innumerable plant and animal species will no longer be suitable for them, because of changes in temperature, precipitation, storm frequency etc.  

-          Impact of Habitat Destruction: When a habitat is destroyed the plants, animals and any other species occupied in that habitat are threatened since the habitat no longer has the capacity to sustain the species.

INVASIVE SPECIES

This refers to when non-indigenous species compete with the current species in a habitat for resources.

Invasive species refers to species, plants and animals which are non-indigenous or non-native and have an adverse affect on the habitat they invade. They disrupt by dominating the region. This term has been uses by International Union for Conversation of Nature (IUCN).

Invasive species could also include when native species disrupts the habitat by becoming dominant due to loss of natural controls. (For example overpopulation a particular species). Common traits of an invasive species are: the ability to reproduce both asexually and sexually, fast growth, rapid reproduction, high dispersal rate, ability to adapt to suit the conditions. These are also reason for its dominations in habitat areas. Lantana in India is a common invasive species.

Examples – Nile Perch are large fish found in River Nile which were introduced in Lake Victoria in Africa and thus were responsible for the destruction of one entire habitat. Water hyacinth, water species from Mexico, have choked water bodies in India and replaced natural vegetation. Eucalyptus and Wattle have destroyed native forests in the mountains of the Western Ghats in Tamil Nadu.

POLLUTION

Pollution comes in three forms: solid, liquid and gaseous waste. Hence there are three types of pollution: air, water and soil pollution. Pollution occurs when there is presence of substances beyond their permissible limits in the atmosphere or water. It is the most subtle form of habitat destruction, leading to loss of biodiversity and contamination or disturbance of existing equilibrium. Pollution can also cause reduction and elimination of sensitive species. Water pollution is caused by dumping organic and human wastes, agricultural wastes and industrial effluents into the river and ocean systems. Pesticides get mixed with the water and poison the fish. Coral reefs are in danger by pollution and industrialization. Inorganic wastes lead to Eutrophication or dying of water bodies. Air Pollution is one of the major causes of Global Warming.  Sulphur Dioxide, Nitrogen Dioxide and suspended particles have an adverse effect on plant and animal species. Pollution through biomagnifications can affect all forms of life.

POPULATION

The population of the world is 6.2 billion and is expected to rise to 9 billion by 2050. This raises the question whether there will be enough resources to sustain the population. The large global population of today, has put immense pressure on the habitat to sustain itself. Natural resources are exploited at a destructive rate. There are water shortages, soil exhaustion, loss of forest, air and water pollution.  Most developed economies are consuming faster than they can regenerate.

Protecting the environment and achieving better standard of living go hand in hand. Slowing the increase of population will reduce pressure on the environment, and gain time to improve standard of living on a sustainable basis. Human Settlements and our expanding needs have turned into encroachment on habitats of species. Most developed economies are consuming faster than they can regenerate. There is a need for population stabilization and resources conversation for the world to meet the challenges of sustainable development. 

  

OVER-HARVESTING

It is essentially about sustainable use of renewable resources whether it is forests or fisheries. Overharvesting pushes the ecosystem beyond repair. A large number of forest lands are continuously cleared to convert it to grazing land for cattle. India has a grazing land of only 13 million hectares and so more land is cleared. The animals trample the seedlings and lead to a decrease in the water storing capacity of the soil. Overgrazing destroys grasslands; plants become weak and have reduced root strength. It leads to the inability of the forests to perform their functions like acting as the catchment for rivers etc.

@Notes courtesy of Aparna, Shruti Gokhale, Dhanika and myself

RIGHT TO EDUCATION

Education & India

Right to Education has received considerable focus  during the last decade. Many groups and agencies made determined efforts to ensure that all children in India receive at least the minimum of education irrespective of their socio-economic status and their ability to pay for education. Education is an essential human right and achieving this for all children is one of the biggest moral challenges of our times. The right to education is included  in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and the Convention on the rights of children. 

The Indian Education Commission (Kothari Commission) 1964–1968, reviewed the status of education in India and made recommendations. Most important amongst these is its recommendation of a common school system with a view to eliminating inequality in access to education. Immediately thereafter, the National Policy on Education, 1968 was formed. The 1968 Policy was the first official document evidencing the Indian Government’s commitment towards elementary education. The Policy dealt with issues of equalisation of educational opportunity and required the common school system to be adopted in order to promote social cohesion. However, it was not supported by legal tools that could enforce such policy mandates.

Problems

ü  Despite various government efforts, one thirds of the population till remains illiterate              

ü  Of the nearly 200 million children in the age group between 6 and 14 years, more than half do not complete eight years of elementary education; they either never enroll or they drop out of schools.                                                                                                                       

ü  Percentage of children enrolling in secondary schools in the age group 14-17 is much less when compared to  developed countries and other  developing countries ,               

ü  In higher education less than 10% are enrolled.                                                                          

ü  Gender and spatial disparities are high.                                                                                       

ü  Rural populations are at a higher disadvantage & schooling among women are less than that of women in all states                                                                                                                    

ü  Lack of facilities, proximity to schools discourage children from joining schools                      

ü  Poor quality of education and teachers                           

ü  The Revised policy on education (1992) suggested provisions of adequate classrooms and teachers . But still many schools are being run in the open, in tents and kutcha buildings.

Efforts are on to improve school environment and facilities.  The Education guarantee scheme (2000) is viewed as an effective way to improve enrolment. National policies lay stress on eradicating illiteracy altogether and to provide universal elementary education to all in the shortest possible time.

India has made a concrete effort to address the issue of education by amending its Constitution to make quality elementary education the right of every child. Elementary education has been made a fundamental right .  With the amendment to the constitution, elementary education  is made free and compulsory for  all the country’s children.

Right to Education Act 2010

The Right of children to Free and Compulsory Education Act come into force from April 1, 2010. Some of the features of this Act are

ü  Every child in the age group of 6-14 years will be provided 8 years of elementary education in an  appropriate classroom in the vicinity of his/her neighbourhood.                    

ü  The state  has the responsibility of enrolling the child as well as ensuring attendance and completion of 8 years of schooling                                                                                      

ü  No child shall be denied admission for want of documents;                                                                  

ü  no child shall be turned away if the admission cycle in the school is over and no child shall be asked to take an admission test.                                                                             

ü  Children with disabilities will also be educated in the mainstream schools                                

ü  All private schools shall be required to enroll children from weaker sections and disadvantaged communities to the extent of 25% of their enrolment, by simple random selection. No seats in this quota can be left vacant.

While this Act is a welcome development , it should be noted that this act covers only upto age 14.  As a signatory to the United Nations Child Rights Convention, India has accepted the international definition of a child as someone under the age of 18 years. The Act therefore does not cover the rights of 0-6  and 14-18 age group.

Legislative framework

Article 45, of the Constitution of India originally stated:

“

The State shall endeavour to provide, within a period of ten years from the commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of fourteen years.”

This article was a directive principle of state policy within India, effectively meaning that it was within a set of rules that were meant to be followed in spirit and the government could not be held to court if the actual letter was not followed. However, the enforcement of this directive principle became a matter of debate since this principle held obvious emotive and practical value, and was legally the only directive principle within the Indian constitution to have a time limit.

• Article 45 was substituted by this article (the Ninety-third amendment bill) which read:

“

Provision for early childhood care and education to children below the age of six years: The State shall endeavour to provide early childhood care and education for all children until they complete the age of sixteen years.

”

Following initiatives by the Supreme Court of India during the 1990s the Ninety-third amendment bill suggested three separate amendments to the Indian constitution:

• The constitution of India was amended to include a new article, 21A, which read:

“

The State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years in a such manner as the State may, by law, determine.

”

• Another article, 51A, was to additionally have the clause:

“

...a parent or guardian [shall] provide opportunities for education to his child or, as the case may be, [a] ward between the age of six to fourteen years.

”

The bill was passed unanimously in the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Indian parliament, on November 28, 2001.^[101] It was later passed by the upper house—the Rajya Sabha—on May 14, 2002. After being signed by the President of India the Indian constitution was amended formally for the eighty sixth time and the bill came into effect. Since then those between the age of 6–14 have a fundamental right to education.
Article 46 of the Constitution of India holds that:

“

The State shall promote, with special care, the education and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people, and in particular of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of social exploitation'.

”

Other provisions for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes can be found in Articles 330, 332, 335, 338–342. Both the 5th and the 6th Schedules of the Constitution also make special provisions for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.

@Notes courtesy of Aparna, Shruti Gokhale, Dhanika and myself

REPRESIVE LAWS OF INDIA

The Indian constitution provides for the rule of law but sometimes the government acts in a manner that deals a sever blow to this concept and encourages authoritarian trends. For example, in the name of dealing with the communist revolt in Telangana in 1951, the first peasant movement that took place in independent India; crushing the naxalites, curbing smugglers and terrorists, the Indian Government has over the years passed certain acts and issued ordinances which give it absolute power. The government justifies its action stating that some people commit crimes and misuse constitutional provisions and go scot free after taking recourse to judicial action. However, critics say that very often, it is the government that abandons the rule of law to achieve its political motives by crushing the opposition in order to remain in power. Whatever maybe the arguments on either side, it is true that in the last 50 years, such authoritarian tendencies have gathered momentum through the detriment of democracy and the rule of law in India. 

The Fundamental Rights given by one hand have been taken back by the other because of certain exceptions and restrictions thus depriving the ordinary citizen of his rights in reality.

Eg. The Fundamental Rights are incomplete because they do not include the right to work and leisure.

The right to Freedom and Speech has many obstacles such as censorship moral policing – this was noted in Tehelka, and the case of Satyandra Dube.

Authoritarian Trends in Indian Democracy:

1950 – PDA

1958 – Armed Forces Special Powers Act

1971 – MISA (Maintenance of Internal Security Act)

1975 – Emergency

1980 – NSA

1982 – TADA

1994 – MCOCA

2001 – POTO - POTA

1950 – PDA, passed as a result of the communist led revolt in Andhra Pradesh.

The Preventive Detention Act (PDA) was passed in 1950, which constituted a serious restraint to personal liberty and was in force till 1969. It gave the government the right to imprison without trial before any crime had actually been committed as a precautionary measure. For 19 years the PDA was enforced.

In 1958 the Armed Forces Special Powers Act was formed and it continues to date. It empowers the Armed Forces with extra ordinary powers of arresting without a warrant and killing any person just on suspicion. Entering premises and destroying property. Gave immunity to armed forces. The armed forces have used this arbitrarily in J & K from 1990 and the North – East from 1958.  The Pathribal fake encounter is a case where the CBI has given evidence point out to the encounter case to the Supreme ( eight Army men ), but due to the protection provided by AFSPA they cannot not be punished since they have immunity from law.

In 1971 the notorious MISA was passed to deal with the Naxalites, the secret agents of East Pakistan, smugglers etc. Maintenance of Internal Security Act is the full form of MISA. Thousands of people were detained for 3 months without trial. Many of them were set free when they went to court.  The 39th Amendment to the Constitution of India placed MISA in the 9th Schedule to the Constitution, thereby making it totally immune from any judicial review; even on the grounds that it contravened the Fundamental Rights which are guaranteed by the Constitution, or violated the Basic Structure. During Emergency, this law was used to detain many opposition members.

In 1975, the President curtailed the right of the detainees to go to court for protecting their fundamental rights. 1975 was probably the darkest hour of Indian democracy. This was on the 26th of June, 1975.

In 1980, the Congress with Indira Gandhi at the helm again came to Power and the NSA, National Security Act was passed, which was applicable to the whole of India except J & K. Anybody who acted prejudicial to the country could be arrested. This was the time when the Khalistan movement had begun. The law allows for preventive detention of up to two years of persons believed to have committed offences under the Act.

In 1982, when the terrorist and extremist problem became acute, another repressive law called TADA (Terrorist and Desruptive Activities Act) was passed in 1985 and remained in power till 1995. Under this law anybody could be arrested, detained and even tortured if the government was convinced if he or she was engaged in anti state violence. 

Under TADA, several politicians and human rights activists were arbitrarily arrested.

In 1994, Maharashtra formed the MCOCA – Maharashtra Control of Organized Crime Act. Unlike normal law the confessions before senior police officers are admissible, not only against the accused giving the confession but also against the other accused in the same case.

Amendments to Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA), 1967: These included increased punishment for committing acts of terrorism, enhanced police powers of seizure, communication intercepts made admissible as evidence and extended periods of detention without charges to 90 days from the original 30 days.

The Government has tried to curtail the power of the Judiciary by clipping it’s wings since 1970. Many senior judges at the Supreme Court and the High Courts have been superseded or transferred and their vacancies have been filled with pliable judges.

Look up POTA and POTO and what it entails. The ordinance was passed in 2001 in the wake of the attacks in the US. Several attacks in the state of Jammu and Kashmir, and the attack on the Indian Parliament in December 2001 acted as catalysts for the enactment. POTA allowed for detention of a suspect up to 180 days without filing charges in court. It also allowed authorities to withhold identity of witnesses, treated confessions to police as admissions of guilt, and included provisions for banning organizations and for cracking down on funding for terrorism. It gave the government sweeping powers to arrest and detain anyone labelled as a terrorist and was used as a political weapon to harass ordinary citizens. POTA is a threat to freedom of expression. One of the most high-profile arrests under POTA was not of a terrorist, but of a politician

from Tamil Nadu – V. Gopalaswami alias Vaiko.

The Prime Minister’s Office (PMO) has become an institution of influence and authority. There is complete politicisation of the Civil Services in India and very often bureaucrats and politicians become a law unto themselves and misuse their office. They look down with contempt on the ordinary citizens and are neither effective nor efficient. They are often pressurized by the politicians for personal gain.

If an ordinary citizen and the media can be more vigilant and active, authoritarian tendencies can be curbed and true democracy and the rule of law can take routes in the country.

@Notes courtesy of Aparna, Shruti Gokhale, Dhanika and myself

NAXALISM

 Persistent Threat: In 1964, CPM splits from CPI, and decides to withhold from taking part in elections, to plan a revolutionary uprising in India as per the format of any Communist ideology. In 1967, the first Naxalism uprising takes place at Naxalbari, where Charu Majumdar launched the first peasant uprising.

The first 25 years of the Naxalite insurgency were characterized by the communist principles on which the movement was founded. Fighting for land reform, the rebels gained support from the impoverished rural populations of eastern and central India. The Maoist rebellion quickly adopted violence and terror as the core instruments of its struggle against the Indian authority. Primary targets included railway tracks, post offices, and other state infrastructure, demonstrating the Maoists’ commitment to undermining a central government that they believed exploited low castes and rural populations. As states and the central government employed uncoordinated and underfunded responses to the Naxalites, the threat expanded beyond West Bengal and its neighboring states.

In 2004, the two predominant rebel groups, the Maoist Communist Center (MCC) and the People’s War Group (PWG), merged together. The resulting Communist Party of India (Maoist) emerged as a solidified base of power for the Naxalites, with a stated goal of overthrowing the Indian government. It has developed in its modern form as a rebellion that comprises up to 40,000 permanent armed cadres and 100,000 additional militia members. According to the South Asia Intelligence Review, Maoist violence bears responsibility for 998 deaths in 2009, representing the highest one-year total since 1971.

The Expansion of the Rebellion: The nascent stages of the movement reflected the stark contrast between urbanized areas of India and the primarily rural, underdeveloped regions of Naxalite influence. With the Maoist rebels firmly entrenched in geographically remote areas, Indian government resources remained dedicated to urban security and development concerns. As India looks increasingly to its east for vital resources, the conflict continues to expand beyond the principles of its origin. With a growing population and new development initiatives that require additional coal-powered electricity sources, India’s urban centers have come into direct contact with the states most affected by the Naxalite uprising: West Bengal, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra.

There have been often kidnapping cases of government officials by Naxalities and recently for the first time, kidnapping of two foreign Italian Nationals.

Rising Urban Influence: A striking development of the evolving Naxalite strategy includes infiltration of Indian urban centers and a shift away from the confines of the rural eastern corridor. While recruitment of militants for attacks on government targets remains limited to the states traditionally affected by Maoist influence, leaders of the Communist Party of India (Maoist) – the CPI (Maoist) – and militant cadres are turning toward Indian cities for the recruitment of sympathizers and logistical support. In 2007, two prominent members of the CPI (Maoist) were arrested in Mumbai and found in possession of weapons caches, having used the city as a base for their operations. The following year, more than 400 rebels unleashed unprecedented attacks on the urban towns of Nayagarh and Daspalla in Orissa.

The Economics of the Insurgency: In addition to the movement toward urban centers, the Naxalites have opened new pathways for financial gain and the funding of insurgency operations. Traditionally, funding has exploited the impoverished rural classes that the movement claims to represent. According to Indian Home Secretary G. K. Pillai, the Maoist insurgents extort 14 billon Indian rupees (more than $300 million) each year. By brandishing the threat of violence, the Naxalites make advantageous use of the power vacuum in rural Indian territories. Fees are collected from rural business owners, landowners, and local politicians.

As businesses have sought to expand into the resource-rich regions controlled by the Naxalites, an additional opportunity for profit has arisen, albeit one that conflicts with the ideological basis of the Maoist movement. In the years of forcible land acquisition, the Naxalites still turned profits by exacting fees from businesses, such as paper mills, that generated revenue from the land. As India has shifted toward a system where land is voluntarily sold to businesses, the insurgents have used violence as a tool to disrupt the aspirations of corporate groups such as Vedanta and Tata.

Renewed Government Response: The Government from the beginning of Naxalism, as treated this as a law and order problem when it is much more than that. The real problem lays in the problem of poverty and under-development in the areas affected by Naxalism. Naxalism has gained support easily in areas, where there seems to be lack of development, poverty and exploitation.

In a 2006 speech, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh stated that Naxalism remains “the single biggest internal security challenge” that India has ever faced. Under the guidance of Home Minister P. Chidambaram, India has begun to embrace an unprecedented commitment toward addressing this threat. At the end of 2009, India launched a counteroffensive that called for the deployment of more than 50,000 paramilitary soldiers to the regions most affected by the insurgency’s increased violence. In previous years, the Indian government tacitly supported the failed efforts of locally operated militias, such as the Salwa Judum in the state of Chhattisgarh. Chidambaram’s action instead draws a combined force from the Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF), Indo-Tibetan Border Police, Border Security Force, Sashastra Seema Bal, Commando Battalion for Resolute Action (CoBRA) and the Nagaland Armed Police. Deemed “Operation Green Hunt,” the counteroffensive includes the use of helicopters and drones with aerial strike capabilities that can provide support to the land forces. To date, the results of the operation have had varying levels of success. While at times the intensified military and police involvement has led to Naxalite calls for peace talks, other instances have led to reprisal attacks by insurgent groups.

The Role of Police: Regardless of the inroads made by committed military and police engagement, a solution to the Maoist insurgency will ultimately require effective governance and lasting security measures in the states most affected by the threat. In the absence of federal forces, state police are responsible for security issues pertaining to their individual state. Commonly the targets of militant attacks, these police forces maintain a relatively sparse presence in the eastern corridor.

Successes: Massive increases to the state police force coincided with widespread intelligence gathering. During the period of ceasefire, officials developed a vast intelligence network through negotiations with the rebels, as well as the implementation of a multilayered governmental bureaucracy alongside an abundance of state offices and infrastructure. Coupled with massive increases to both the size and budget of police forces, the Naxalites’ capabilities of resistance and recruitment became significantly weakened. Developmental projects that forged ties to the tribal populations proved essential toward limiting the influence of Maoist insurgents.

The Changing Future of the Conflict: India is committed to addressing its internal security challenges. Its strong offensive against the Naxalites demonstrates a strengthened ability to organize for the task. In the past, India has experienced the difficulties of integrating national and local efforts to form a cohesive counterinsurgency against constantly emerging militant groups. To achieve its objectives against the Maoist revolt, India will need to instill strong and effective governance throughout the Red Corridor. The positive example of Andhra Pradesh provides a crucial pathway for the Indian government to follow as it seeks to maintain control not only over its territory but over its citizens as well. This week’s attacks in Chhattisgarh demonstrate the urgency that the Indian state must adopt in transferring these past successes to both security and development in the Red Corridor. The recent events have sent shock waves throughout the core of the Indian security community and will undoubtedly lead to a reevaluation of both federal and state policies. Chidambaram has publicly ruled out an imminent military reprisal, but he has left open the possibility of reviewing India’s approach to the Naxalite insurgency. As a comprehensive counterinsurgency strategy continues to develop, improved governance and the ability to follow successful precedents will remain essential for India to look optimistically toward its future.

@A Modern Insurgency: India’s Evolving Naxalite Problem

William Magioncalda

UDHR

Human Rights have been traced to the Greeks who guaranteed: 

• Right to freedom of speech
• Right to equality before law
• Right to equal respect for all

The British Magna Carta, the United States Bill of Rights, and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man are human rights documents that have preceded Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR).

It was during World War II that issue of human rights were raised. Franklin D. Roosevelt, the US President in the Atlantic Charter of 1941, along with British PM Winston Churchill penned the four freedoms which are:

·         Freedom of speech and expression

• Freedom from fear
• Freedom from any kinds of discrimination
• Freedom of every person to worship of God in his own way

At the end of World War II, the atrocities of Nazis were revealed to the world, where 6 million Jews had been exterminated. The world was shocked and a Polish lawyer named Raphael Lemkin coined the word "genocide."

In 1946 after the formation of the United Nations, a UN Commission on Human Rights was formed, consisting of 18 members. Eleanor Roosevelt as Chairperson, P.C Chang (China) and René Cassin (France) as Vice-Chairpersons and Charles Malik (Lebanon) as a rapporteur. The principal task of the Commission was to define which rights should be enumerated, and to determine the nature of the document they were to design.

In December, 1948 after numerous meeting after changes, the Declaration was put to vote. Forty-eight nations voted for the Declaration, eight countries abstained (the Soviet bloc countries, South Africa and Saudi Arabia) and two countries were absent -- the community of nations adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights without dissent. 

Human rights can be broadly classified into

1.      The Right to Physical and Mental Integrity – The right to life, liberty, security, freedom from torture, cruel and inhuman treatment, freedom from slavery, forced labor, arbitrary arrest etc                                                                                                                 

2.      Freedom of conscience and Action – Freedom of opinion, religion, expression, Freedom of information, freedom to form associations, trade unions, freedom of movement etc                                                                                                                                           

3.      Right to Legal justice – Fair trial in courts, the Right to defend                                           

4.      Privacy and Family Rights                                                                                                     

5.      Political Rights – The right to vote and stand in election                                                      

6.      Economic and social rights- The right to work, adequate standard of living, social security, the right to health services                                                                                               

7.      Equality and non-discrimination

Right to Development , was adopted by the UN in 1986

Importance  of UDHR : 

ü  Human rights are moral, universal. It is a set of moral rules and it is binding on all the nations to follow the  UDHR although it is not legal

ü  Serves as a common standard for all

ü  Makes violation an international concern

ü  Human rights allow us to fully develop and use our human qualities, our intelligence and talent.  They also satisfy our spiritual and  other needs

ü  It respects and protects basic dignity and human worth

ü  Respect for human rights is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world. 

ü  It has Influenced constitution of many countries. – Fundamental Rights in our constitution is based on UDHR.

Significance of UDHR  with reference to India

Our constitution provides for fundamental  rights which are based on and inspired by UDHR. However there are several issues in the past and in the present which signifies the importance of UDHR

ü  Mass arrests of opposition leaders and mass sterilization program during the emergency period

ü  Even today women are victim of dowry, domestic violence, liquor, rape . Discrimination in work place, sexual harassment at work place violate the womens right to dignity and freedom. The low status of women in India is visible in cases of female foeticide.

ü  Discrimination based on caste and class exist in our society . Untouchability is still practiced in our society specially  the rural India and there are cases of increased violence against the Dalits.                                                                                             

ü  Several projects have resulted in displacing people from their region and deprived them of their livelihood.  eg Narmada Dam project , Although they may be resettled in other areas, there are issues of human rights                                                                                                                                        

ü  Torture in Custody and custodial deaths , fake encounters,  custodial rapes are reported from various states.                                                                                                                   

ü  Conditions in our prisons and the inhuman treatment of prisoners is  a serious violation of human rights.

ü  Several farmers committing suicide raises question of Right to Live.

ü  Child labor is still prevalent in India. Children  employed in homes and in commercial workplaces, are subjected to ill-treatment. The chaining of bonded child labour in the carpet industry near Varanasi so that they could not escape was reported. There are reports of Domestic child workers being tortured sometimes resulting in death. 

ü  There has been increasing cases  of child abuse, and more particularly child sexual abuse

ü  20 years after Bhopal tragedy, victims are still waiting for justice.

In the light of the above it is significant to note that we as a nation should understand the principles of UDHR.    NHRC, and many  human rights activists have been taking action on human  rights issues as and when they are reported   But a lot more needs to be done by all concerned . What is required is mass awareness and self regulation.

@Notes courtesy of Aparna, Shruti Gokhale, Dhanika and myself

DEFORESTATION

A bit more that more 1 acre of forest is cut down every second. Such destruction of forest has impacted climate- carbon contained in the trees is emitted from trees and the planet is slowly losing forests as carbon sinkholes.

China and United States are the major contributors to carbon emitting, followed by Indonesia and Brazil. The reason for Indonesia and Brazil being on the list is because 60% of the world’s deforestation occurs in Indonesia and Brazil. Brazil itself contributes to 48% to global deforestation, the Amazon forest being destroyed by 20% every year. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization also list Sudan, Myanmar, Nigeria and Congo as major contributors to deforestation.

Conversion of forest land for large-scale agriculture use is attribute for a major part of deforestation in Asia and Latin America. Conversion of forest land for large-scale agriculture use is attribute for a major part of deforestation in Africa.

More than 80% of globe’s palm oil, which is uses as biofuel comes from Indonesia and Malaysia. However extensive research has revealed that with the life cycle of palm oil has proved that the clearing and burning of forests are grown contribute far more CO2 to the atmosphere than is ever absorbed.

It has been estimated that more than 40% of CO2 has been accumulated in the atmosphere from deforestation in past centuries. About 1/3^rd of forests are still ‘primary forests’ where human intervention has still not reached and impacted it. 1/3^rd of the forest are primarily used for production of wood and non-wood products.

An estimated 50%-60% of all species on Earth are found in forests and yet there are still may undiscovered species in forests. These rich reserves of biodiversity are being destroyed, shrinking the animal habitats. The cumulative impact of destruction across the planet is leading to what experts believe the Sixth Great Extinction, where species are going to be extinct in more rapidly than the natural rate.

Acting as a carbon sink and a habitat of the planet’s biodiversity are the only generally believed environmental benefits of forests. However forests also bring significantly more amount of rain. Forest also modulate the hydrological cycle by absorbing heavy rains, enhancing the seepage of water into the ground held firm by the roots and reducing surface run off.

Causes for deforestation are –

1.      Slash and Burn Technique for agriculture, which is practised mostly in tropical and sub-tropical countries. Whereas large groups of people used to move from one forest to other, in recent years there has been a large inflow of poor migrants engaging in the practice, especially in the Brazilian Amazon and in the African Congo Basin. Almost 20% of the Amazon forest has already been destroyed.

2.      Poverty and population growth in poor countries results in extreme pressure on land and people to engage in deforestation activities in order to obtain land for basic purposes.

3.      An increased demand in the globalised marketplace for wood, palm oil, soybeans, sugarcane etc has resulted in people clearing more and more forest lands in order to produce largely on the land that is cleared.

4.      A lot of forest land is also cleared for development projects like dams, reservoirs, hydro electric projects, highways, roads, rails etc.

5.      Quarrying and mining operations also lead to deforestation.

6.      According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) subsistence farming is responsible for 48% of deforestation; commercial agriculture is responsible for 32% of deforestation; logging is responsible for 14% of deforestation and fuel wood removals make up 5% of deforestation.^[8]

7.       

Consequences of Deforestation –

1.      Loss of trees disturbs the air, water and soil cycles. Trees extract groundwater through their roots and release it into the atmosphere. When a part of the forest is removed, the groundwater is no longer evaporated, resulting in a much drier climate.

2.      It results in the loss of biodiversity and habitats and affects the quality of life.

3.      If forests are cleared, there are no trees to absorb the Carbon dioxide emitted which leads to an increase in Global Warming and Greenhouse Effect.

4.      Deforestation also affects soil cohesion. It can cause floods, landslides and soil erosion.

Solutions to Deforestation –

1.      Reforestation – Some nations are proceeding with national reforestation and afforestation programs, even in the absence of a global treaty. The leading country in tree plantation is China.

2.      There should be legislation in all the countries of the world to stop cutting trees.

3.      Creating and maintaining wildlife sanctuaries will also help in curbing the cutting down of trees.

4.      REDD – REDD stand for Reduce Emissions from tropical Deforestation forest Degradation. It involves providing financial compensation for the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation and forest degradation.

5.      There should be prevention of expansion and development projects at the cost of the forest land.

A tree should be harvest only when its carbon intake reduces, which occurs over a numbers of years.

@Notes courtesy of Aparna, Shruti Gokhale, Dhanika and myself